May 2023

Abstract:

The purpose of this study was to investigate the recent development of meat analog, industrialization, and the related legal changes worldwide. Summarizing the current status of the industrialization of meat analog, studies on plant-based meat, mycoprotein, and edible insects were mainly conducted to investigate their sensory properties (texture, taste, flavor, and color resembling meat), nutritional and safety evaluations, acquisition method of meat alternatives, and commercialization. Cultured meat is mainly studied for developing muscle satellite cell acquisition and support techniques or materials for the formation of structures. However, these technologies have not reached the level for active industrialization. Even though there are differences in the food categories and labeling between countries, it is common to cause confusion or to relay false information to consumers; therefore, it is important to provide accurate information. In this study, there were some differences in the food classification and food definition (labeling) contents for each country and state depending on the product shape or form, raw materials, and ingredients. Therefore, this study can provide information about the current research available on meat alternatives, improve regulation, and clarify laws related to the meat analog industry, which can potentially grow alongside the livestock industry.

Lee, S. Y., Lee, D. Y., Jeong, J. W., Kim, J. H., Yun, S. H., Mariano, E. J., Lee, J., Park, S., Jo, C., & Hur, S. J. (2023). Current technologies, regulation and future perspective of animal product analogs. Animal Bioscience. https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.23.0029 

Alternative proteins, including plant-based and cell-based meat and dairy analogues, are discursively positioned as a new form of meat and dairy and as a solution to the myriad of issues associated with conventional animal agriculture. Animal agricultural industries across various nations have resisted this positioning in regulatory spaces by advocating for laws that restrict the use of meat and dairy terms on the labels of alternative proteins products. Underlying this contestation are differing understandings of, and vested interests in, desirable futures for animal agriculture. In Australia, this broader contestation led to a national-level inquiry by a Senate parliamentary committee entitled Definitions of meat and other animal products (the Inquiry). This paper reports findings from a study of the problematizations developed through the Inquiry using a framework for policy discourse analysis referred to as Bacchi’s ‘What’s the Problem Represented to be’ methodology. It shows how the dominant discourse throughout the Inquiry moved away from the initial problematization of alternative proteins as a threat to animal agriculture. Instead, both industries were ultimately positioned as not in competition and only labelling laws were problematized with the solution being amendments to ensure ‘consumer clarity’. This outcome ignored a range of alternative problematizations related to the ethical, environmental, health, social and economic issues raised by animal agriculture and by alternative proteins. This lack of scrutiny benefits both industries, by closing off the policy discourse to consideration of a range of alternative interests, voices, and potential solutions, such as stricter health and welfare regulation.

Johnson, H., Parker, C., & Evans, B. (2023). “Don’t mince words”: Analysis of problematizations in Australian alternative protein regulatory debates. Agriculture and Human Values. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-023-10441-7  

Abstract:

Plant-based protein products, represented by “plant meat”, are gaining more and more popularity as an alternative to animal proteins. In the present review, we aimed to update the current status of research and industrial growth of plant-based protein products, including plant-based meat, plant-based eggs, plant-based dairy products, and plant-based protein emulsion foods. Moreover, the common processing technology of plant-based protein products and its principles, as well as the emerging strategies, are given equal importance. The knowledge gap between the use of plant proteins and animal proteins is also described, such as poor functional properties, insufficient texture, low protein biomass, allergens, and off-flavors, etc. Furthermore, the nutritional and health benefits of plant-based protein products are highlighted. Lately, researchers are committed to exploring novel plant protein resources and high-quality proteins with enhanced properties through the latest scientific and technological interventions, including physical, chemical, enzyme, fermentation, germination, and protein interaction technology.

Xiao, X., Zou, P.-R., Hu, F., Zhu, W., & Wei, Z.-J. (2023). Updates on plant-based protein products as an alternative to animal protein: Technology, properties, and their health benefits. Molecules, 28(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104016 

Abstract:

One significant food group that is part of our daily diet is the dairy group, and both research and industry are actively involved to meet the increasing requirement for plant-based dairy alternatives (PBDAs). The production tendency of PBDAs is growing with a predictable rate of over 18.5% in 2023 from 7.4% at the moment. A multitude of sources can be used for development such as cereals, pseudocereals, legumes, nuts, and seeds to obtain food products such as vegetal milk, cheese, cream, yogurt, butter, and different sweets, such as ice cream, which have nearly similar nutritional profiles to those of animal-origin products. Increased interest in PBDAs is manifested in groups with special dietary needs (e.g., lactose intolerant individuals, pregnant women, newborns, and the elderly) or with pathologies such as metabolic syndromes, dermatological diseases, and arthritis. In spite of the vast range of production perspectives, certain industrial challenges arise during development, such as processing and preservation technologies. This paper aims at providing an overview of the currently available PBDAs based on recent studies selected from the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus. We found 148 publications regarding PBDAs in correlation with their nutritional and technological aspects, together with the implications in terms of health. Therefore, this review focuses on the relationship between plant-based alternatives for dairy products and the human diet, from the raw material to the final products, including the industrial processes and health-related concerns.

Plamada, D., Teleky, B.-E., Nemes, S. A., Mitrea, L., Szabo, K., Călinoiu, L.-F., Pascuta, M. S., Varvara, R.-A., Ciont, C., Martău, G. A., Simon, E., Barta, G., Dulf, F. V., Vodnar, D. C., & Nitescu, M. (2023). Plant-based dairy alternatives: A future direction to the Milky Way. Foods, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12091883 

Abstract:

Plant-based meat alternatives have been considered from past years, but recently gained much importance in research development and food industries. Concerns related to health, animal welfare, ethical beliefs and environment act as a driving force for the production of protein-based meat analogues. The major challenging work in the development of plant-based meat is to imitate the texture of meat analogues. The production of plant-based meat analogue needs an astute choice and formulation of constituents to perfectly mimic the fibrous texture of meat. Various plant-based constituents like texturized and non-texturized proteins, fats and oils, thickening agents, binding agents, colouring and flavouring agents used with different processing technologies (extrusion, electrospinning, wet-spinning, shear cell, freeze structuring and 3D-printing) for the production of plant-based meat analogues. This critical review highlights essential ingredients for creating these novel meat analogues, emphasizing protein sources, ingredient functionality, production technologies and health and environmental effects of plant-based meat and consumer acceptance towards plant-based meat.

Imran, M., & Liyan, Z. (2023). Production of plant-based meat: Functionality, limitations and future prospects. European Food Research and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-023-04287-w   

Abstract:

With the increasing adoption of plant-based diets in the United States, more and more individuals replace cow milk with plant-based milk alternatives. Soy milk is a commonly used cow milk substitute, which is characterized by a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fibers. Despite these favorable characteristics, little is known about the current prevalence of soy milk consumption the United States. We used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) to assess soy milk usage in the United States and identified potential predictors for its consumption in the US general population. The proportion of individuals reporting soy milk consumption in the NHANES 2015–2016 cycle was 2%, and 1.54% in the NHANES 2017–2020 cycle. Non-Hispanic Asian and Black ethnicities (as well as other Hispanic and Mexican American ethnicities in the 2017–2020 cycle) significantly increased the odds for soy milk consumption. While a college degree and weekly moderate physical activity were associated with significantly higher odds for consuming soy milk (OR: 2.21 and 2.36, respectively), sex was not an important predictor. In light of the putative health benefits of soy milk and its more favorable environmental impact as compared to cow milk, future investigations should attempt to identify strategies that may help promote its consumption in selected populations.

Storz, M. A., Brommer, M., Lombardo, M., & Rizzo, G. (2023). Soy milk consumption in the United States of America: An NHANES data report. Nutrients, 15(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112532 

Abstract:

Plant-based protein products, represented by “plant meat”, are gaining more and more popularity as an alternative to animal proteins. In the present review, we aimed to update the current status of research and industrial growth of plant-based protein products, including plant-based meat, plant-based eggs, plant-based dairy products, and plant-based protein emulsion foods. Moreover, the common processing technology of plant-based protein products and its principles, as well as the emerging strategies, are given equal importance. The knowledge gap between the use of plant proteins and animal proteins is also described, such as poor functional properties, insufficient texture, low protein biomass, allergens, and off-flavors, etc. Furthermore, the nutritional and health benefits of plant-based protein products are highlighted. Lately, researchers are committed to exploring novel plant protein resources and high-quality proteins with enhanced properties through the latest scientific and technological interventions, including physical, chemical, enzyme, fermentation, germination, and protein interaction technology.

Xiao, X., Zou, P.-R., Hu, F., Zhu, W., & Wei, Z.-J. (2023). Updates on plant-based protein products as an alternative to animal protein: Technology, properties, and their health benefits. Molecules, 28(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104016 

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to analyze the labels of plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) sold in Brazilian supermarkets. The study focused on ingredient lists, allergens, label claims, and nutritional values. Out of the 59 products analyzed, 41 listed soy as the primary source of protein, while pea and wheat were the next most common sources. Sunflower oil was the most frequently listed lipid source, appearing on the labels of 19 products. The labels of 70% of the products made claims such as "100% vegetable," "no preservatives or colorings," and "source of fiber." Compared to traditional meat products, PBMAs showed wide variation in energy, protein, lipid, and carbohydrate contents. The highest protein content was found in hamburgers, meat/chicken, sausage, and hotdogs, while hamburgers and meatballs had the highest saturated fat content. When compared to legislation on meat products, only 49% and 23% of the PBMAs met the minimum protein and maximum carbohydrate levels, respectively. These findings suggest that dedicated regulations for plant-based meat alternatives are necessary to ensure consumers can make informed choices and support the development of the plant-based meat industry.

Lima, D. C., Noguera, N. H., Rezende-de-Souza, J. H., & Pflanzer, S. B. (2023). What are Brazilian plant-based meat products delivering to consumers? A look at the ingredients, allergens, label claims, and nutritional value. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 121, 105406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2023.105406 

Abstract:

This study examines the potential of local plant proteins in promoting sustainable dietary transition in public catering and, simultaneously, helping rural regions find sustainable livelihoods in the future. Environmental and health reasons call for a transition to more plant-based diets in Western countries. This poses a livelihood challenge for many rural/semi-rural regions that are currently livestock-dominated. Local plant protein crops could be a ‘win-win’ solution, both for promoting dietary transition and for supporting local rural economies – presently two conflicting objectives in regions where animal production prevails. This study is based on a development project in which local public catering actors undertook to increase the use of local plant proteins. It analyses public actors’ rationalities that explain actions and inactions for sustainability transition and the positioning of plant proteins therein. Results demonstrate how the dominant catering rationalities, and mismatches between regime and niche actor rationalities, hinder the mainstreaming of local plant proteins. The discussion reflects upon ways to overcome these barriers.

Kortetmäki, T. (2023). Why do local plant proteins not take off? The International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food. https://doi.org/10.48416/ijsaf.v29i1.487  

Abstract:

We estimate the relationship between farm animal welfare (FAW) efforts taken by beef farmers and the economic performance of beef farms by using farm accounting data from the Swedish Farm Economic Survey matched with survey data on farm management practices. To this end, we perform a two-step analysis. First, an item response theory (IRT) model estimates the latent FAW effort on farms. FAW effort likely depends on a host of complementary FAW-improving strategies, and the IRT model combines the considered strategies into a unidimensional scale. We take this to represent on-farm FAW effort. Second, we use instrumental variable regressions to estimate the relationship between FAW effort and multiple measures of farm economic performance. We find that higher FAW effort scores have no effect on margins and costs. However, higher FAW effort scores are associated with lower farm sales. Findings suggest that policies (such as targeted label for high FAW) that increase farm revenue as well as incentivize the uptake of FAW-improvement practices may be able to compensate farmers for their FAW effort.

Ahmed, H., Emanuelson, U., Alvåsen, K., Berg, C., Hultgren, J., Rocklinsberg, H., & Hansson, H. (2023). Animal welfare efforts and farm economic outcomes: Evidence from Swedish beef production. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/age.2023.8

Abstract:

Concerns regarding the welfare of farm animals continue to grow. Traditionally, research efforts have largely focused on refining existing management practices to improve welfare. However, the incorporation of views from those directly involved in animal care is equally, if not more, important. This study investigated the perspectives of Canadian dairy farmers on animal welfare. We conducted 16 interviews with a total of 22 participants from four provinces across Canada. Recorded audio files and field notes were transcribed, anonymised, and coded using deductive and inductive thematic analysis. The interview data revealed two major themes: (1) animal dimension of animal welfare, including views related to biological functioning, naturalness and affective states; and (2) dairy farmer identity, including, the voice of the ‘city’, what it means to be a good ‘cow-man’, and the nature of human-animal relationships. Dairy farmers emphasised biological functioning, but they made numerous references to the emotional and natural living aspects of their animals’ lives. Our work also provides evidence that farmers believed it was their duty to care for their animals beyond simply milking cows and making a profit. In terms of the larger debate, this study identified potential shared values with members of the public: opportunities for natural living and agency, attentiveness to individual animals, and the value of life over death. Finally, the emotional relationship that farmers developed with their animals highlights the values dairy farmers have for their animals beyond simply utilitarian function. Overall, these shared values could contribute to constructive dialogue.

Schuppli, C. A., Spooner, J. M., & von Keyserlingk, M. A. (2023). Canadian dairy farmer views about animal welfare. Animal Welfare, 32. https://doi.org/10.1017/awf.2023.32 

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to examine Finnish consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for measures to improve broiler chicken welfare and to examine how familiarity with animal production farms, trust in food system actors, and views concerning the responsibility for animal welfare were associated with the WTP. A survey instrument, including a choice experiment, to study consumer preferences for food quality attributes was developed. The survey data were analyzed using a latent class model and logistic regression analysis.

The results suggested that Finnish consumers tend to have a positive WTP for improvements in farm animal welfare (FAW) in broiler production, although WTP varied by consumer segment. Five different consumer groups with different levels of WTP for specific welfare attributes were identified. The highest WTP was estimated for an additional space allowance for the birds and enhanced litter quality monitoring at the farm.

In conclusion, there is demand for animal welfare labeled broiler chicken among Finnish consumers. However, consumer expectations are heterogeneous, and different strategies can appeal to different segments. While one consumer segment prioritizes FAW over price, another segment emphasizes low-priced products and considers mid-market products appealing. Moreover, public policies are an important tool for enhancing FAW for a large proportion of consumers, and public actions are therefore warranted. Finally, engaging with animal protection organizations (as mediators) and being open to consumers can be an effective strategy to build confidence in premium products.

Heinola, K., Latvala, T., & Niemi, J. K. (2023). Consumer trust and willingness to pay for establishing a market-based animal welfare assurance scheme for broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 102(7), 102765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102765

Abstract:

The nature and evolution of positive emotion is a major question remaining unanswered in science and philosophy. The study of feelings and emotions in humans and animals is dominated by discussion of affective states that have negative valence. Given the clinical and social significance of negative affect, such as depression, it is unsurprising that these emotions have received more attention from scientists. Compared to negative emotions, such as fear that leads to fleeing or avoidance, positive emotions are less likely to result in specific, identifiable, behaviours being expressed by an animal. This makes it particularly challenging to quantify and study positive affect. However, bursts of intense positive emotion (joy) are more likely to be accompanied by externally visible markers, like vocalisations or movement patterns, which make it more amenable to scientific study and more resilient to concerns about anthropomorphism. We define joy as intense, brief, and event-driven (i.e. a response to something), which permits investigation into how animals react to a variety of situations that would provoke joy in humans. This means that behavioural correlates of joy are measurable, either through newly discovered ‘laughter’ vocalisations, increases in play behaviour, or reactions to cognitive bias tests that can be used across species. There are a range of potential situations that cause joy in humans that have not been studied in other animals, such as whether animals feel joy on sunny days, when they accomplish a difficult feat, or when they are reunited with a familiar companion after a prolonged absence. Observations of species-specific calls and play behaviour can be combined with biometric markers and reactions to ambiguous stimuli in order to enable comparisons of affect between phylogenetically distant taxonomic groups. Identifying positive affect is also important for animal welfare because knowledge of positive emotional states would allow us to monitor animal well-being better. Additionally, measuring if phylogenetically and ecologically distant animals play more, laugh more, or act more optimistically after certain kinds of experiences will also provide insight into the mechanisms underlying the evolution of joy and other positive emotions, and potentially even into the evolution of consciousness.

Nelson, X. J., Taylor, A. H., Cartmill, E. A., Lyn, H., Robinson, L. M., Janik, V., & Allen, C. (2023). Joyful by nature: Approaches to investigate the evolution and function of joy in non-human animals. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12965 

Abstract:

Projects that aim to improve the welfare of equids worldwide usually involve people from different countries and cultures working together. Given that professionals involved with multi-stakeholder projects often work cross-culturally, this study examined their experiences regarding the challenges involved in, and their reflections on, how to work in a culturally sensitive way. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 participants working in a total of 29 countries and analysed using thematic analysis. Key response themes emerged from the responses to questions covering the areas of perceptions of animal welfare, challenges working cross-culturally and embracing cultural sensitivity. The overriding theme regarding perceptions of animal welfare was that of barriers to animal welfare, under which emerged the subthemes of limited financial and material resources, limited understanding of the tenets of animal welfare, and attachment to traditional medicines and practices. Exploring the key challenges resulted in two themes: challenges regarding the local context and etiquette, and those regarding working with different stakeholders. Considering cultural sensitivity, again, two themes emerged: the importance of trust and respect, and of working with local partners. Previous works have highlighted the importance of shared linguistic knowledge, interpersonal skills and cultural knowledge, and these elements also emerged in this research. As well as providing insights into the challenges of working cross-culturally, the findings of this study have enabled the development of suggestions for how this work could be taken forward in a practical way to be of use to professionals in this sector.

Rogers, S., Lee, N. Y. P., White, J., & Bell, C. (2023). Perceptions of cross-cultural challenges and successful approaches in facilitating the improvement of equine welfare. Animals, 13(11), 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111724

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to gain insight into the perceptions of pig farm and abattoir workers as well as lay citizens regarding (1) sentience and (2) positive (intelligent and friendly) and negative (gluttonous, stubborn and dirty) attributes of pigs. We also aimed to investigate the (3) knowledge and perceptions of pig farm and abattoir workers on tail lesion, ear lesion and lameness in pigs and (4) the opinion of lay citizens regarding the likelihood of tail lesions, ear lesions, and lameness causing suffering in pigs and affecting meat quality. Chilean pig farm workers (n = 116), pig abattoir workers (n = 95), and lay citizens (n = 708) were invited on farm, at the abattoir and in public places, respectively, to participate in a survey. Answers were indicated using a 5-point Likert scale (0 = totally disagree; 4 = totally agree). Data were analysed using generalized linear models, including recruitment place and socio-demographic data as predictor variables. Female and lay citizens attributed pigs a higher capacity to experience feelings than male participants and pig farm and abattoir workers (p < 0.05). Lay citizens and workers recruited on farm described pigs as being more intelligent and friendly than those workers recruited at the abattoir (p < 0.001); recruitment place and sex were not associated with participants’ perception regarding negative attributes of pigs (p > 0.05). Most lay citizens considered that tail lesions, ear lesions and lameness are likely to cause suffering in pigs and older participants had higher odds of agreeing that tail and ear lesions are likely to affect meat quality (p < 0.05). Finally, the risk factors for tail lesion, ear lesions and lameness pointed out by pig farm and abattoir workers is in line with what has been suggested by experts. Our findings contribute to understand the perception and values of all stakeholders regarding animal welfare, as it is crucial to improve the sustainability of animal production systems.

Lemos Teixeira, D., Salazar, L. C., Enriquez-Hidalgo, D., & Hötzel, M. J. (2023). Pigs’ capacity to experience feelings and to suffer from tail lesion, ear lesion and lameness: Exploring citizens and pig farm and abattoir workers’ knowledge and perceptions. Plos One, 18(5), e0286188. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286188 

Abstract:

CONTEXT: Agricultural food production is affected by and contributing to climate change. At the global scale, agri-food systems are responsible for one third of total greenhouse gas emissions. With progressing climate change, risks of crop failure increase. There is thus an urgent need to reduce emissions from food systems, while increasing their resilience to climate change. Large untapped potentials to achieve these dual goals lie in the transformation of agri-food systems towards more diverse, plant-based and regional food production and consumption behavior. OBJECTIVE: In this paper, we present an innovative approach for identifying climate-adapted alternative food crops that could (1) help to diversify existing cropping systems and thus increase their climate resilience, and that can be (2) nutritious elements of plant-based regional diets with reduced emissions. METHODS: The approach builds on the model ecocrop to select food crops that could benefit from regionally projected changes in climate. The model-based analysis is complemented with a literature review to examine the ecocrop’s results for their plausibility and provide a broader assessment of potentials for cultivation and utilization of model-selected crops. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The approach is applied for Switzerland, where we identify eight alternative crops with potentials to increase climate resilience, while contributing to healthy human diets of regional consumers with benefits for climate mitigation (i.e. almond, pecan, sesame, durum wheat, quinoa, lentil, lupine and borage). The literature review indicated that the increasing demand for many of these crops suggests great potential for regional marketing of crop products. The results produced in this study provide an initial guide for researchers and innovative farmers interested in experimenting with alternative crops in Switzerland, thus promoting climate-smart food system transformation from the production-side. SIGNIFICANCE: Using our unbiased bottom-up screening approach, we were able to identify climate-adapted alternative crops that can provide important nutrients and cover nutritional gaps in Switzerland, as well as diversify existing production systems and improve sustainability.

Heinz, M., Galetti, V., & Holzkämper, A. (2023). Alternative crops for climate-resilient regional food production in Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4463255 

Background:

For many years now, climate researchers have been warning that the world can’t meet its Paris Agreement climate goals of limiting global warming to 1.5°C without reducing meat consumption. Multiple studies have affirmed that between 11.1 and 19.6% of global emissions come from meat and dairy production, and leading global food and climate agencies are also in agreement, recommending that people, particularly those in the Global North, reduce meat consumption in favor of a plant-rich diet.

The effects of animal agriculture on the environment and climate are vast: It is a leading cause of deforestation, it’s responsible for significant biodiversity loss and pollution, and emits large amounts of greenhouse gases, particularly methane. Methane alone is the cause of over 25% of global warming, for which reason reducing methane emissions is critical. If emissions continue as they are now, the food sector alone is enough to push global warming past that 1.5°C limit, while just reducing meat consumption could get the world much closer to our emissions goal. In the United States, this reduction would mean that the average person would consume about 70% fewer animal products on a daily basis, with the greatest reductions coming from red meat and chicken—92% less red meat and 81% less chicken, according to EAT-Lancet Commission recommendations.

Despite the extensive research supporting the reduction of animal product consumption, there’s long been a disconnect between what the research shows and what the public understands. According to a recent consumer study conducted by Purdue researchers: “The belief that ‘eating less meat is better for the environment,’ which is strongly supported by many climate and environmental researchers, is at an all-time low” (Lusk & Polzin, 2023). The reason for this disconnect is multifaceted, but at least one factor is the information the public receives regarding the connection between animal agriculture and climate change.

Given the role of the media in informing the public about important issues like climate change, this partner project between Faunalytics and Sentient Media sought to understand how the media communicates the environmental implications of animal agriculture to readers. By analyzing recent climate articles from top U.S. media outlets, we drilled down on how often the media makes the connection between animal agriculture and climate change when reporting on climate issues, and how reporting on animal agriculture in relation to climate change misses the mark.

Arévalo, C., Splitter, J., & Anderson, J. (2023). Animal agriculture is the missing piece in climate change media coverage. Faunalytics. https://faunalytics.org/animal-ag-in-climate-media/#

Abstract:

Despite evidence for favourable health outcomes associated with plant-based diets, a database containing the plant and animal content of all foods eaten is required to undertake a reliable assessment of plant-based diets within a population. This study aimed to expand an existing Australian food database to include the plant and animal content of all whole foods, beverages, multi-ingredient products and mixed dishes. Twenty-three plant- and animal-based food group classifications were first defined. The food servings per 100 g of each product were then systematically calculated using either a recipe-based approach, a food label-based approach, estimates based on similar products or online recipes. Overall, 4687 (83·5 %) foods and beverages were identified as plant or plant-containing products, and 3701 (65·9 %) were animal or animal-containing products. Results highlighted the versatility of plant and animal ingredients as they were found in various foods across many food categories, including savoury and sweet foods, as well as discretionary and core foods. For example, over 97 % of animal fat-containing foods were found in major food groups outside the AUSNUT 2011–2013 ‘fats and oils’ group. Surprisingly, fruits, nuts and seeds were present in a greater percentage of discretionary products than in core foods and beverages. This article describes a systematic approach that is suitable for the development of other novel food databases. This database allows more accurate quantitative estimates of plant and animal intakes, which is significant for future epidemiological and clinical research aiming to investigate plant-based diets and their related health outcomes.

Stanford, J., McMahon, S., Lambert, K., Charlton, K., & Stefoska-Needham, A. (2023). Expansion of an Australian food composition database to estimate plant and animal intakes. The British Journal of Nutrition, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114523001101 

Abstract:

Values and personality affect food choices, and values are associated with personality. Food values are values that have been developed specifically within a food context. Our primary objective was to investigate the associations between these food values and the Big Five personality traits. An online survey with a choice experiment on food values and questions about socioeconomic characteristics and personality traits were conducted in Norway and the US. A latent class logit model was used to segment respondents based on the relative importance they assigned to the different food values. Personality traits and socioeconomic characteristics were used to determine the probability of membership in each segment. A health, an altruistic, a rational, and a hedonistic segment were identified in both countries. In addition, Norwegian natural and welfare segments and US safety and indeterminate segments were identified. Several personality traits and socioeconomic characteristics were significant in defining the segments, and these traits and characteristics can potentially be used for marketing purposes of foods with sustainability-related attributes. Marketing activities can be targeted at segments who emphasize sustainability-related aspects of food consumption such as environmental impact, fairness, and animal welfare.

Ardebili, A. T., & Rickertsen, K. (2023). Food values and personality traits in the United States and Norway. Journal of Cleaner Production, 413, 137310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137310 

Abstract:

Higher Education Institutions (HEI) can contribute to climate change mitigation through reductions in food-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We examined the impact of serving a low-red meat menu 1 day per week on the GHG emissions associated with residential dining halls at a university setting in the USA. We also estimated the potential impacts of replacing meat with lower-emission proteins on GHG emissions and cost using hypothetical substitution scenarios. Food items procured to prepare daily meals were linked to GHG emissions values. During one academic term, a “Sustainable Mondays” intervention was implemented, wherein dining halls reduced red meat dishes on Mondays. We compared GHG emissions on Mondays with Wednesdays. We then developed substitution scenarios that replaced beef, red meat, or all meats and fish with lower-emission protein sources on a per gram of protein basis. Overall, the University dining service food procurement emitted 4661 metric tonnes CO2-eq in one academic term, of which 81% came from animal-source foods. Dining halls reduced red meat procurement by 81% on “Sustainable Mondays,” resulting in 240 fewer metric tonnes of CO2-eq (− 31% compared to Wednesdays). We estimated that replacing red meat with lower-emission meat and red meat/poultry with fish or plant-based proteins could reduce GHG emissions by 14–46%. Our study suggests there is considerable potential for HEI to reduce climate impacts through simple replacements of red meat with lower-emission proteins. Achieving the necessary scales of meat reduction in HEI likely requires institution-wide transformation with changes to food procurement, dining hall choice architecture, and education for students and staff.

Lambrecht, N. J., Hoey, L., Bryan, A., Heller, M., & Jones, A. D. (2023). Limiting red meat availability in a university food service setting reduces food-related greenhouse gas emissions by one-third. Climatic Change, 176(6), 67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-023-03543-y 

Abstract:

Farmed fish welfare has become an important factor in consumers' purchasing decisions. The objective of this study is twofold: (1) to investigate consumers' preference and willingness to pay for farmed fish welfare and (2) to measure the effect of social desirability on consumers' responses. A self-administered online survey was developed and distributed to an Internet panel in Denmark. Discrete choice experiment was used to elicit consumers' preference and willingness to pay for fish welfare. Direct and indirect questioning were used when an individual was asked to make a decision in the discrete choice experiment. Respondents were asked to make their own purchase decision in direct questioning (i.e., the fish product s/he would like to buy), while in indirect questioning, they were asked to make decisions for others (i.e., the most sold product in the market). The results revealed that attributes such as the form of fish, labeling, price, and premium had an influence on consumers' choice of fish. Specifically, consumers were generally willing to pay more in premium for fish that had a “fish welfare guaranteed” label. Consumer heterogeneity was disclosed in consumer preference and willingness to pay. Results also showed that consumers believe other consumers would be likely to pay less for fish welfare than themselves. Thus, the results revealed that social desirability could create bias when valuing fish welfare.

Solgaard, H. S., Yang, Y., & Nguyen, T. T. (2023). An investigation of consumers’ preference and willingness to pay for fish welfare in Denmark: A discrete choice modeling approach. Aquaculture, 574, 739652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739652

Abstract:

This study investigated the application of anaesthetics in 23 private and government-owned hatcheries in 10 provinces of Zambia. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative research designs and used a structured questionnaire to collect data from the respondents. The results showed that most hatcheries (65%) were not using anaesthetics in handling fish and all (100%) that were using anaesthetics (35%) used clove powder as the only type. Most respondents (61%) were not sure or did not have information about the availability of the anaesthetic substances in their localities while only 26% reported wider availability but 13% had a divergent claim. The mortality rate for fingerlings in hatcheries that applied anaesthetics ranged between 15–30% with consistently high demand while those that did not use anaesthetics reported mortality rates of more than 50% and had low demand. The majority of the respondents (53%) had received training up to certificate level, followed by those who had attained up to a diploma qualification (27%) while those that attained up to a degree (13%) and general skills (7%) levels were in the minority. Furthermore, most respondents (35%) did not know the importance of fish anaesthetics. We conclude that the use of fish anaesthetics in Zambian hatcheries is very low and could partly be the cause of high fingerling mortalities, and there is an urgent need to address the situation.

Mphande, J., Hasimuna, O. J., Kikamba, E., Maulu, S., Nawanzi, K., Phiri, D., Chibesa, M., Siankwilimba, E., Phiri, C. J., Hampuwo, B. M., Muhala, V., & Siavwapa, S. (2023). Application of anaesthetics in fish hatcheries to promote broodstock and fish seed welfare in Zambia. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2211845

Abstract:

While most animals have received increasing attention for their welfare, consideration for fish welfare has started more recently, particularly since the recognition that fish have emotions and complex cognitive abilities. Housing conditions in fish farms do not always meet fish ethological requirements as these conditions lack sufficient sensory and cognitive stimulations. An approach to address this issue involves enriching the rearing environment by including social, food, physical, or cognitive stimuli. Cognitive enrichment (CE) is a recent but promising concept to improve fish welfare by manipulating the predictability and controllability of their environment. It relies not only on the ability of fish to predict positive and negative events but also on their ability to perform and succeed in operant conditioning. In our present review, we identified four categories of CE: (i) feeding predictability, (ii) predictability of a negative event, (iii) operant conditioning through self-feeders, and (iv) learning experiences. Existing CEs were reviewed for their effects on behaviour, brain, zootechnical performances, and welfare in terms of physiological stress or physical integrity in the aquarium and farmed teleost fish. The review highlights unbalanced categories and the lack of adequate multidisciplinary analyses to assess the effects of these categories on fish welfare. Providing free access to self-feeders seems to be a good strategy, given its positive effects on zootechnical and physiological parameters. Other categories showed contradictory and species-dependent results; hence, further studies are required to confirm the benefits of CE on fish welfare. Finally, further investigations should also validate current CE systems and assess other strategies that may trigger positive emotions in fish.

Kleiber, A., Stomp, M., Rouby, M., Ferreira, V. H. B., Bégout, M.-L., Benhaïm, D., Labbé, L., Tocqueville, A., Levadoux, M., Calandreau, L., Guesdon, V., & Colson, V. (2023). Cognitive enrichment to increase fish welfare in aquaculture: A review. Aquaculture, 739654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739654 

Executive summary:

In this report, we identify the top opportunities for improving the lives and welfare of farmed fish in Denmark.

To improve the lives of fish, it is important to focus on the asks that will bring about the biggest improvements in the lives of fish for a given investment of effort. One part of this is reaching as many fish as possible. By far, the groups of farmed fish with the highest numbers in Denmark are a) fish living on freshwater farms, and b) juvenile fish. Therefore, improving the lives of these two groups of farmed fish is a priority. Almost all farmed fish in Denmark are rainbow trout.

With this in mind, we have identified two main priority asks.

Welfare reform for freshwater trout farms. This ask would aim to improve the welfare of trout on freshwater farms. In the Danish trout industry, the freshwater farm stage is home to 105 million individual trout every year. So, this ask could secure comprehensive welfare improvements for an immense number of fish. This ask would probably involve legislative lobbying to establish new regulations, and the first step would be to visit farms and obtain data on a collection of welfare indicators. 

Lobby for inquiry into juvenile trout welfare. This ask would involve lobbying the government to conduct an inquiry into the welfare of juvenile fish in Denmark. This would, in turn, get the industry to release more information on juvenile fish welfare and monitor the welfare of juvenile fish in the future. Every year, the industry produces roughly 148 million fingerlings and even more fry than this. The animal advocacy movement has recently turned its attention to juvenile fish, such as the work of the Norwegian Animal Protection Alliance, though campaigns are hindered by a lack of an evidence base. As a result, this ask could not only improve the lives of an immense number of fish in Denmark but also support future campaigns around the world.

There are a few smaller asks that would also be overall positive for the lives of fish, though the total benefit would be lower. These could be run as smaller campaigns, perhaps to secure some victories while the main campaigns are being run. These asks are: 1) increase the uptake of humane trout slaughter by farms; 2) encourage retailers to choose certification schemes that are focused on welfare; and 3) ban the live export of trout.

We also provide a detailed analysis of the context of Danish fish farming and detailed information about the industry, which will assist animal advocacy organisations in any campaign on fish welfare.

Springlea, R. (2023). Farmed fish advocacy in Denmark. Animal Ask. https://www.animalask.org/post/farmed-fish-advocacy-in-denmark 

Abstract:

In recent years, the issue of fish welfare in various aquaculture systems has garnered significant attention from animal protection organizations, government departments, conservation biologists, fish culturists, and the public. Fish welfare can be broadly classified into captive welfare, post-release fitness, and mental state in contexts of aquaculture and hatchery release. Multiple methods have been proposed to enhance specific aspects of fish welfare, and environmental enrichment (EE) has demonstrated immense potential for improving all three welfare aspects. In this review, we provide an overview of state-of-the-art research on the impact of physical enrichment (PE) on fish welfare, and subsequently analyze the potential mechanisms underlying the effects of PE, and suggest future research directions. Regarding fish captive welfare, most studies report positive results of PE, such as reduced aggressive behavior, blunted stress response, and increased growth performance. However, some studies have also reported no or negative effects. We discuss the sources of these discrepancies and further analyze the potential mechanisms of PE effects on aggression, metabolism, and growth. While preliminary studies have shown promising positive effects, research on the impact of PE on disease resistance and reproductive success in fish is limited. For fish post-release fitness, PE has exhibited great potential for improving the development of natural behaviors and increasing the individual fitness of released fish. However, the results are mixed, and most PE strategies that present improved effects on fish post-release fitness often include several EE types, with very few studies showing positive results from solely conducting PE. This review also provides an in-depth analysis of the potential mechanisms underlying the improved post-release fitness of fish, from the perspectives of adaptation, morphology, behavior, and physiology. Additionally, we discuss the possible existence of a sensitive period by analyzing the time-dependent effects of PE on fish behavior. The positive impact of PE on fish mental state has been consistently reported across studies. We also discuss potential issues associated with PE and present a decision-making framework to guide practical application and production. The synthesized knowledge and novel regulatory mechanisms presented in this review will contribute to the advancement of EE strategy and fish welfare theory in the aquaculture industry and hatchery release projects.

Zhang, Z., Lin, W., Li, Y., Yuan, X., He, X., Zhao, H., Mo, J., Lin, J., Yang, L., Liang, B., Zhang, X., & Liu, W. (2023). Physical enrichment for improving welfare in fish aquaculture and fitness of stocking fish: A review of fundamentals, mechanisms and applications. Aquaculture, 574, 739651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739651 

Abstract:

Measuring human consumption of animals and animal products (HCAAP) is challenging but often important for researchers and animal rights advocates. We contribute to measuring HCAAP by conceptualizing that consumption as a trait. In 3 studies, we analyzed responses from traditional Food Frequency Questionnaires and created two measures of HCAAP traits based on 24-hour and 3-month self-reports. Studies 1 (N = 249) and 2 (N = 265) evaluated the item-level properties of 24-hour and 3-month self-reports, eliminating items that were not likely to provide much information about the underlying trait of HCAAP. Study 3 (N = 252) provided evidence that the two measures were predicted by knowledge of animals as food, meat-eating rationalizations, numeracy, sex, and political orientation. These results suggest that the two instruments could be used to measure HCAAP as a trait. We offer suggestions as to when using the two instruments may be beneficial.

Feltz, A., Caton, J., Cogley, Z., Engel, Jr., M., Feltz, S., Ilea, R., Johnson, L. S. M., & Offer-Westort, T. (2023). Using food frequency questionnaires to measure traits: A case study of human consumption of animals and animal products. Psychology of Human-Animal Intergroup Relations, 2. https://doi.org/10.5964/phair.10145

Abstract:

Transitioning away from livestock farming would limit the carbon footprint of humanity and reduce the pressure on water, land and biodiversity. It would also improve human health, as animal farming increases the risks of pandemics and bacterial resistance. All of these risks and opportunities make a compelling case for a transition towards plant-based diets. In case of a large-scale transition, hundreds of thousands of farmers would have to quit animal farming and switch to other activities. Such transition is potentially happening in developed countries, where industrial operations are located, consumption per capita is the highest and alternatives to animal products are increasingly available. However, there is considerable resistance from farmers to this transition. There is thus a need to better understand potential transition pathways to support smooth transitions. To do so, 27 stories of farm transitioning out of livestock farming – so called transfarmation - were collected. Most of these cases are located in Switzerland and the US. These accounts were published on the websites of organizations that support farmers transitioning out of livestock production or by farmers themselves. In this qualitative study, I coded these accounts to identify patterns in the drivers, behaviour and decision-making of farmers explaining their transition. Two main patterns were identified: (1) transfarmations from intensive poultry or pig farms towards a mushroom or market gardening farm, driven by economic interests and (2) transfarmations driven by compassion to animals, mostly leading to a farmed animal sanctuary or market gardening farm. Support organizations for transfarmation seem to be particularly beneficial for the second type of transition. I conclude this paper with research perspectives on the topic of transfarmation, especially on the role of gender and the potential of transfarmation for the green care economy.

Salliou, N. (2023). Quitting livestock farming: Transfarmation pathways and factors of change from post-livestock farmers’ accounts. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1122992/abstract

Abstract:

Transitioning away from livestock farming would limit the carbon footprint of humanity and reduce the pressure on water, land and biodiversity. It would also improve human health, as animal farming increases the risks of pandemics and bacterial resistance. All of these risks and opportunities make a compelling case for a transition towards plant-based diets. In case of a large-scale transition, hundreds of thousands of farmers would have to quit animal farming and switch to other activities. Such transition is potentially happening in developed countries, where industrial operations are located, consumption per capita is the highest and alternatives to animal products are increasingly available. However, there is considerable resistance from farmers to this transition. There is thus a need to better understand potential transition pathways to support smooth transitions. To do so, 27 stories of farm transitioning out of livestock farming – so called transfarmation - were collected. Most of these cases are located in Switzerland and the US. These accounts were published on the websites of organizations that support farmers transitioning out of livestock production or by farmers themselves. In this qualitative study, I coded these accounts to identify patterns in the drivers, behaviour and decision-making of farmers explaining their transition. Two main patterns were identified: (1) transfarmations from intensive poultry or pig farms towards a mushroom or market gardening farm, driven by economic interests and (2) transfarmations driven by compassion to animals, mostly leading to a farmed animal sanctuary or market gardening farm. Support organizations for transfarmation seem to be particularly beneficial for the second type of transition. I conclude this paper with research perspectives on the topic of transfarmation, especially on the role of gender and the potential of transfarmation for the green care economy.

McGregor, A., Houston, D., Dilworth, T.-L., & Bojovic, M. (2023). Plant-based food politics: Veganism, quiet activism and small businesses in Sydney’s foodscapes. Social & Cultural Geography, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2023.2208087